The Quiet Emergency

Suicide is the part we count. Around it sit overdose, alcohol, road deaths of undetermined intent and a violence toll nobody totals — the hidden suffering underneath a society that is not working as well as it says it is.

1. The numbers

• 3,307 Australians died by suicide in 2024 — 2,529 men and 778 women. The age-standardised rate was 11.8 per 100,000.
• Suicide was the 16th leading cause of death overall, the leading cause of death for people aged 15 to 44, and the leading cause of premature death: 107,327 years of life lost, an average of 34.4 years per person.
• Unintentional drug-induced deaths are the second leading cause of death for Australians aged 25 to 44.
• Deaths by suicide, alcohol-induced disease and accidental poisoning together were 3.4 per cent of all Australian deaths in 2021.
• The combined rate has sat between 23 and 25 per 100,000 since 2014 — roughly double the suicide rate alone — and is close to where it was in 1997.
• 76.5 per cent of people who died by suicide were men. The male rate is 18.3 per 100,000 against 5.5 for women.
• Men aged 85 and over have the highest rate of any group at 31.2 per 100,000. Men aged 40 to 44 account for the largest share of deaths at 10.5 per cent.
• Suicide was the second leading cause of death for Australian children in 2024 and 15.9 per cent of all child deaths.
• The rate in remote and very remote Australia runs between 20.5 and 24.6 per 100,000 against 9.9 to 10.9 in major cities.
• People in the most disadvantaged fifth of the population die by suicide at 2.5 times the rate of the most advantaged.
• The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rate was 33.9 per 100,000 in 2024 — the highest since the Closing the Gap baseline of 23.6 was set in 2018.
• The median age at death for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is 33, against 46 for the population as a whole.
• 79.7 per cent of people who died had at least one recorded risk factor, with an average of four.
• 14.7 per cent of suicides in the Queensland register involved a person who had perpetrated intimate partner violence. 92.7 per cent of them were men.
• Intimate partner and family violence may contribute to between 28 and 56 per cent of suicides among women — four to eight women a week.
• International research suggests up to 8 to 9 per cent of fatal road crashes may be suicides, with up to half unreported.
• People who received specialist homelessness support in their last year of life accounted for around one in seven accidental poisoning deaths, one in nineteen suicides and one in twenty-five land transport accident deaths.
• Their death rate was 1.8 times that of the general population. People experiencing homelessness die on average 22 to 33 years younger than those who are housed.
• National suicide figures are published with a lag of up to 18 months. Emergency department data on suicidal behaviour is not collected nationally at all.

2. Harm short of death

Deaths are the visible edge. The same forces do most of their damage without killing anyone, and the scale of that damage is the reason this is a national condition rather than a health caseload.

Gambling. Australians lost about $25 billion in 2022–23 — the highest per-person losses in the world — from $244.3 billion wagered. Around 80,000 to 160,000 adults experience significant problems from gambling and a further 250,000 to 350,000 are at moderate risk. Nearly half of Australians who gamble are at risk of, or already experiencing, harm: financial hardship, relationship breakdown, domestic violence, lost productivity, crime, insomnia, depression and suicide. Almost half the money lost on poker machines comes from people exceeding low-risk limits.

Family violence. Police recorded 97,800 family and domestic violence offenders in 2024–25, an 8 per cent increase on the previous year and the largest annual rise since national reporting began — a rate of 403 offenders per 100,000 people, the highest on record. Under a broader definition including emotional and economic abuse, 579,300 women had experienced abuse by a cohabiting partner. Family violence is the leading cause of homelessness for women and children.

Homelessness and housing. Specialist homelessness services carry the consequences of both. People experiencing or at risk of homelessness are a named priority population for suicide prevention, and those who have experienced family or domestic violence are a large share of the people those services see.

Family breakdown. 49,158 divorces were granted in 2025, and an unknown further number of de facto separations were not counted at all because they involve no court and no filing.

None of those figures are deaths. They are the population from which the deaths are drawn, and they are two to three orders of magnitude larger. A policy aimed only at the 6,500 is aimed at the last week of a process that ran for years.

3. Deaths of despair

Australia counts suicide because a coroner made a finding. The finding requires evidence of intent, and intent is often the one thing a person leaves no record of. What sits either side of that line is not a different phenomenon; it is the same one, classified differently.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics revises its suicide figures for about three years after first publication. Deaths that are later reassigned into the suicide count were, in the main, first coded as accidental drug poisoning, events of undetermined intent, or other ill-defined causes. The boundary between suicide and accident is, in a meaningful proportion of cases, an administrative one.

Overdose. In 2021, 65 per cent of drug-induced deaths in Australia were unintentional — which means about a third were not, and that the classification rests on a judgement about what a person meant. Unintentional overdose is the second leading cause of death for Australians aged 25 to 44, sitting immediately behind suicide, in the same age band, among the same population.

Overdose is where the two categories blur most, and the revision data shows it. When the Bureau reassigns a death into the suicide count years after the fact, the code it most often comes from is accidental drug poisoning. Every year, a number of deaths first recorded as accidents are later found to have been something else — and the ones that are never revisited stay where they were first put.

That has a consequence for policy that is rarely stated. Overdose prevention and suicide prevention are funded, administered and evaluated as different programs, for a population that the coronial system itself cannot reliably separate.

Alcohol. 91 per cent of alcohol-induced deaths are the result of chronic conditions — the slow version, accumulated over years.

The road. International research suggests driver suicides may account for up to 8 to 9 per cent of all fatal road crashes, with up to half of those cases going unreported; other work puts deliberate self-harm while driving at between 1.1 and 7.4 per cent of crashes.

Men are between 78 and 91 per cent of road transport suicides. In Australia, the recorded rate nearly doubled between 2001 and 2017. Against a road toll of roughly 1,300 a year, the international estimate implies something in the order of 100 deaths a year currently counted as accidents.

That last category carries a consequence the others do not. Where a suicide collision involves vehicles of very different weight, close to 30 per cent injure another person and around 4 per cent kill one.

4. Recorded risk factors

The Australian Bureau of Statistics codes psychosocial risk factors from coronial files. It records circumstances, not causes, and the average person who died had four of them. No single-cause explanation survives that arithmetic.

Across all ages in 2024, the most commonly recorded factors were mood disorders (34.8 per cent), suicidal ideation (30.5 per cent) and problems in spousal relationships (25 per cent). At least one psychosocial factor was present in two-thirds of deaths.

The difference between men and women is sharp. For men: mood disorders, then spousal relationship problems, then ideation. For women: mood disorders at 43.3 per cent, personal history of self-harm at 34 per cent, ideation at 28.8 per cent.

One finding stands out. For men aged 25 to 44, problems in spousal relationships overtook mood disorders as the leading recorded factor for the first time, at 36.1 per cent. The category includes separation, divorce, arguments and domestic violence situations. For men aged 45 to 54, disruption of family by separation and divorce is the single most common factor recorded.

The coding is specific enough to be useful. Separate categories exist for unemployment, for economic circumstances — which expressly covers foreclosure, creditors, financial loss and bankruptcy — for legal problems, for release from prison, for bereavement, and for a family history of suicide.

Place changes the mix. Alcohol and substance use is the most commonly recorded factor in remote and very remote Australia. Employment and housing problems are more common in major cities and inner regional areas.

And the antecedents are often procedural. In the Queensland study of people who had perpetrated intimate partner violence, the events preceding death were domestic violence orders, the receipt of legal documents, and relationship conflict or separation. Of that group, 61.4 per cent had communicated suicidal intent and 43.9 per cent had sought mental health care before they died. The system saw them.

5. Isolation

Isolation is the thread running through every finding above, and it is the factor Australia measures least well.

Suicide Prevention Australia's tracking found isolation and loneliness surpassing housing affordability as a suicide risk for the first time in two years, with 27 per cent of Australians citing loneliness or social isolation as a key cause of distress in September 2025, up from 22 per cent a year earlier. The sector has separately rated social isolation the single highest risk to suicide rates.

The effect size is not marginal. A case-control study of 14,515 people who died by suicide against 580,159 controls found loneliness and social isolation associated with an approximately five-fold increase in suicide mortality, with much stronger associations in younger people, and concluded that social isolation is a potentially reversible risk factor. A nine-year cohort study found that for men, living alone and living with non-partners were associated with death by suicide.

The specific finding for men is the one that matters here: the risk of suicide decreases with increasing social integration.

Australian longitudinal work identifies what drives male loneliness — social isolation, the end of a relationship, long-term disability, and a strong belief that the man should be the breadwinner. What protects against it is frequent social contact, having a partner, and satisfaction with the neighbourhood. Job security matters most for younger men; volunteering and less rigid gender-role expectations matter most for older ones.

That mechanism explains the shape of the data. Separation peaks as a factor for men in their forties and fifties. The highest rate of any group is men over 85, who have outlived their networks. Remote areas run at double the city rate. Trades are the most common occupation among men who die.

One honest tension. Reported loneliness runs opposite to the suicide profile: those who say they often or always feel lonely peak at 18 to 24, and fall to 5 per cent among people over 75. Older men report the least loneliness and die at the highest rate. Either they do not report it, or objective isolation matters more than the feeling. That is an argument for measuring both.

6. Money and housing

Financial pressure is not a background condition in this data. It is coded, named and present throughout.

The Bureau's psychosocial coding has a category for economic circumstances that expressly covers foreclosure on loans, problems with creditors, financial loss, bankruptcy and the unemployment of a family member. Unemployment has its own code. Problems related to employment and to housing are the factors most commonly recorded in major cities and inner regional areas — the places where the cost of living bites hardest.

Suicide Prevention Australia's tracking has followed cost of living as a driver of community distress for several years. Housing affordability sat among the top reported causes of distress until isolation and loneliness overtook it in 2025 — a change in ranking, not a disappearance.

Family breakdown belongs in the same section, because it arrives through the same door and lands on the same people.

The headline rate is not the story. Australia granted 49,158 divorces in 2025, up 4.1 per cent on the previous year, at a crude rate of 2.2 per thousand — higher than 2024, but well below the 3.3 of 2005 and nothing like the peak that followed the Family Law Act. Anyone claiming a record is wrong.

What has changed is who it happens to. In 2025, age-specific divorce rates rose for every male age group from 40–44 upward and every female group from 35–39 upward, while falling among people in their twenties and early thirties. The median age at divorce is now 47.3 for men and 44.4 for women, after a median 9.4 years from marriage to separation.

Those are the same years. Separation and divorce is the most commonly recorded circumstance in the suicides of men aged 45 to 54, and problems in a spousal relationship are the leading recorded factor for men aged 25 to 44. Divorce has moved into the age band where men die.

And most family breakdown is not in the divorce figures at all. Marriages fell again in 2025 to 118,804, with the crude marriage rate down to 5.3 per thousand. More couples never marry, and when those relationships end there is no filing, no court, and no statistic.

The country does not know how many families come apart each year, in the same way it does not know how many of its people are killing themselves.

Sole-parent households sit at the end of that sequence, and they carry the financial consequences of it — lower incomes, higher housing stress, less capacity to absorb a shock. They appear in this memo as a population the policy has to protect, not as a cause of anything.

Homelessness is where all of this converges, and the evidence is the strongest single link in this memo.

People who received specialist homelessness support in the last year of their life accounted for around one in seven accidental poisoning deaths, one in nineteen deaths by suicide, and one in twenty-five land transport accident deaths.

Accidental poisoning and suicide were the most common causes of death in that group, together between a quarter and a third of all deaths. Their death rate was 1.8 times that of the general population, and Australian studies find people experiencing homelessness die on average 22 to 33 years younger than those who are housed.

Read that again. The same small population appears across all three of the categories this memo has been describing — the overdoses, the suicides and the road deaths. It is the clearest available evidence that these are not three problems but one, and it comes from the government's own linked data.

The pathway is documented. Housing research identifies three factors linking housing instability to suicide: prolonged financial stress caused by high housing costs, the insecurity of eviction or homelessness itself, and the long-term effect of adverse childhood events. Unemployment, undiagnosed mental illness and legal problems were strongly associated with suicide risk among people experiencing homelessness.

People experiencing or at risk of homelessness are already a named priority population under the National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Agreement. Being named has not been sufficient.

The sequence, in the order it usually happens: housing costs rise faster than income; savings go; a relationship strains and breaks; someone leaves the house; the drinking increases; the work becomes unreliable; the tenancy ends; the networks thin out. Every step of that has its own portfolio and its own program, and nobody is watching the whole line.

7. Gambling and alcohol

Gambling and alcohol run through this data as recorded circumstances and as causes of death in their own right.

On gambling specifically: the one serious Australian study, in Victoria, identified 4.2 per cent of suicides over eight years as gambling-related, 83 per cent of them men and concentrated among the most disadvantaged. Its authors stated plainly that this is an underestimate, because coroners do not routinely investigate gambling and it is concealed from family and clinicians. Hong Kong, using better methods, identified 20 per cent.

Ages 25 to 44 are the most likely to have psychoactive substance use recorded, at 24.5 per cent for acute use and 28.2 per cent for chronic. In remote Australia, acute alcohol use is recorded in over a third of deaths. Nine in ten alcohol-induced deaths are chronic conditions rather than acute poisonings.

Alcohol-induced deaths numbered 1,667 in 2023, at a rate of 5.6 per 100,000 — roughly half the suicide rate and counted separately from it. Nine in ten are chronic conditions rather than acute poisonings, which means they are recorded as disease deaths and appear in no suicide or overdose statistic.

Autopsies in the Queensland violence study commonly showed alcohol, prescription and illicit drugs together.

8. Drugs

Two thirds of drug-induced deaths in Australia are unintentional. Whether an overdose was intended is frequently unknowable, which is why these deaths and suicides move between categories on revision, as section 3 sets out.

Australia has two drug problems running at once. They involve different substances, different populations and different systems, and only one of them is policed.

The illegal supply

Between August 2024 and August 2025, wastewater analysis estimated national consumption of methylamphetamine, cocaine, heroin and MDMA at 26.8 tonnes — a 21 per cent rise on the previous year, which had itself risen 34 per cent. The combined street value in the prior period was approximately $11.5 billion, of which methylamphetamine accounted for 78 per cent.

Methylamphetamine consumption in 2024–25 was around 15,800 kilograms, against 8,000 for cocaine and 1,700 for MDMA. It is consistently the second most consumed illicit drug measured in wastewater, behind cannabis. Use has roughly doubled in a decade, and Australians are the second highest consumers of methylamphetamine among comparable countries, after the United States.

The survey data points the other way, and the memo states both. Self-reported recent use of methamphetamine or amphetamine fell from 2.0 per cent of Australians aged 14 and over in 2013 to 1.3 per cent in 2019 and 1.0 per cent in 2022–23 — about 200,000 people, with 1.6 million reporting lifetime use.

The reconciliation is that fewer people are using more. Researchers describe a shift toward more potent forms and more intensive use among a smaller group, alongside rising treatment demand and rising ambulance callouts. The market shrank in headcount and grew in volume.

The distribution is the part that matters for this memo. Recent use is 2.1 per cent in remote and very remote Australia against 1.1 per cent in major cities — the same geography as the death rates in section 1, the same geography as the disadvantage gradient, and the same communities named in section 9.

The prescribed supply

The larger problem is legal.

Pharmaceutical opioid deaths in Australia exceed heroin deaths by two to two and a half times — the reverse of the position in the 1990s. Pharmaceuticals, largely oxycodone and morphine, account for 55 per cent of opioid poisoning hospitalisations, against 20 per cent for heroin.

Australia prescribed opioids in primary care at 21.5 defined daily doses per 1,000 people per day in 2022, against an OECD average of 15. Every day there are close to 150 hospitalisations and around three deaths involving opioids. Between 8 and 12 per cent of patients with chronic pain may become dependent on them.

Benzodiazepines were the single most common drug type in drug-induced deaths. There were 654 benzodiazepine-induced deaths in 2024, at a rate of 2.4 per 100,000 — down from a peak of 4.4 in 2018, but still above the 1.9 recorded in 1997.

The combination is where the risk concentrates. 329,000 patients dispensed opioids in 2024–25 had also been dispensed benzodiazepines in the previous 30 days. Both suppress breathing. Both were prescribed.

Dispensing rates are highest among people aged 80 and over. Non-medical use of pain relievers is 1.6 times more common in the most disadvantaged areas than the most advantaged.

Opioid dispensing rose from 2012–13 to 2016–17 and has declined since, following the de-listing of some medicines, tighter prescribing restrictions and smaller pack sizes from June 2020. Benzodiazepine dispensing has declined steadily since 2012–13. The direction is right. The base is still high by international comparison, and the deaths continue.

The misuse

Prescribing volume and misuse are different problems, and Australia measures both.

In 2022–23, one in twenty Australians aged 14 or over — 5.3 per cent — had misused a pharmaceutical drug in the previous twelve months, up from 4.8 per cent in 2016. Non-medical use means using a drug recreationally, or in a way it was not prescribed.

Within that: 500,000 people, 2.2 per cent of the population, used pain-relievers or opioids non-medically, and around 400,000 people, 2.1 per cent, used pharmaceutical stimulants such as dexamphetamine and methylphenidate non-medically. Among people aged 20 to 29 the stimulant figure was 4.8 per cent.

Pharmaceuticals used non-medically rank fourth among illicit drugs by recent use, behind cannabis, cocaine and hallucinogens — ahead of methamphetamine.

The distribution splits by class. People in the most disadvantaged areas are 1.6 times as likely to use pain-relievers non-medically. People in the most advantaged areas are 2.7 times as likely to use pharmaceutical stimulants non-medically.

Misuse rarely occurs alone. 54 per cent of people who used pain-relievers non-medically reported using another drug at the same time, most commonly alcohol. In 2024, multiple drugs were involved in 72 per cent of ambulance attendances for benzodiazepines and 71 per cent for pharmaceutical opioids.

The harm is concentrated in the young and in women. Around half of hospitalisations for antidepressants, antipsychotics and non-opioid analgesics are people aged 15 to 34. Women aged 15 to 24 have the highest hospitalisation rate for non-opioid analgesics of any age and sex group, at 115.6 per 100,000.

One intervention measurably worked. Codeine was made prescription-only in February 2018. Non-medical use of codeine more than halved, from 3.0 per cent of the population in 2016 to 1.2 per cent in 2022–23.

Non-medical use of pain-relievers overall has fallen since 2016. Total pharmaceutical misuse has risen. The composition changed rather than the volume.

What is not known

The evidence on antidepressants runs both ways and is genuinely contested. Regulators maintain a warning of increased suicidality in people under 25, based on placebo-controlled trials, and researchers continue to argue that warning is well founded. Against that, untreated depression is itself among the strongest risk factors for suicide, no completed suicides occurred in the trials that produced the warning, and large cohort studies in older adults find substantially lower suicide rates among people taking treatment than among those not.

No part of this memo is clinical advice, and nobody should change or stop a prescribed medication other than in consultation with their doctor.

What can be said without contradiction is this. Australia does not link prescribing data to suicide outcomes, does not systematically follow people after discharge from mental health care, and does not publish outcomes by treatment pathway. Real-time prescription monitoring exists but is administered separately by each state.

Of the people in the Queensland study, 43.9 per cent had sought mental health care before they died. Whether the care helped, failed, or made no difference is not a question the Australian data can answer. The data does not record it.

9. Opportunity and expectation

Research on suicidality finds that struggling to find meaning and purpose in life is associated with increased risk. It is one of the few findings in this memo that describes a state of mind rather than a circumstance, and Australia has measured that state of mind falling.

Between 2021 and 2025, agreement that Australia is a land of economic opportunity where hard work brings a better life fell 13 points. Optimism about the country’s future fell 12 points. The expectation that one’s own life will improve over the next three to four years fell 13 points. Sense of belonging fell 11 points and is now at its lowest level since that measurement began in 2007.

Fewer than one in three Millennials and Gen Z report a strong sense of belonging — the generations with the least secure housing, the least secure work, and the least reason to expect the arrangement to improve.

Those are not measures of how Australians feel about each other. They are measures of whether people believe there is a future available to them, and they moved together, in the same direction, in four years.

The mortality data runs along the same line. The suicide rate in the most disadvantaged fifth of the population is 2.5 times the rate in the most advantaged. In remote and very remote Australia it is 20.5 to 24.6 per 100,000 against 9.9 to 10.9 in major cities. Problems relating to employment and unemployment are among the recorded psychosocial risk factors, and financial and housing pressure runs through section 6.

For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians the same absence is measured at a different scale. The rate is 33.9 per 100,000, the highest since the Closing the Gap baseline was set, and the median age at death is 33 — more than a decade below the national figure. Suicide is the leading cause of death for First Nations female children and the second for male children.

This is one condition across two populations. Where people cannot see a future, cannot see an opportunity, and cannot see a reason that the next decade will be better than this one, the deaths follow — in remote communities, in outer suburbs, in country towns and among the young everywhere.

What was lost is not a belief system. It is the ordinary expectation that effort leads somewhere, that a person has a place, and that things continue. Section 15 sets out what a government would rebuild.

10. Violence

Violence. In the Queensland Suicide Register between 2000 and 2017, 629 people — 14.7 per cent of all suicides — had perpetrated or were alleged to have perpetrated intimate partner violence. In Victoria, 24.5 per cent of people who died by suicide between 2009 and 2016 had experienced family violence, and 65.1 per cent of the men among them were classified as perpetrators only. Offender suicide followed 11 per cent of intimate partner homicides.

The reverse direction is larger and almost entirely uncounted. Coronial reviews suggest intimate partner and family violence may be a contributing factor in 28 to 56 per cent of suicides among women — four to eight women a week — against one woman killed every eleven days by a current or former partner. Those reviews exist in three states.

Australia counts the women killed by their partners. It does not count the women who die by suicide because of them.

Police recorded 97,800 family and domestic violence offenders in 2024–25 at a rate of 403 per 100,000, the highest since national reporting began. The connection between that population and this one is measured, and it runs in both directions.

The perpetrator direction: in the Queensland register, 14.7 per cent of all suicides involved a person who had perpetrated or was alleged to have perpetrated intimate partner violence, 92.7 per cent of them men. Of that group, 61.4 per cent had communicated suicidal intent and 43.9 per cent had sought mental health care before they died. The events preceding death were specific and are largely created by the state itself: the service of a domestic violence order, the arrival of legal documents, a separation.

The victim direction is larger and almost entirely unmeasured. Coronial reviews in three states estimate that intimate partner and family violence contributes to between 28 and 56 per cent of suicides among women — four to eight women a week — against one woman killed every eleven days by a current or former partner.

Australia counts the women killed by their partners. It does not count the women who die by suicide because of them.

Offender suicide followed 11 per cent of intimate partner homicides, and a higher proportion again where children were killed. In Victoria, 24.5 per cent of people who died by suicide over an eight-year period had experienced family violence, and 65.1 per cent of the men among them were classified as perpetrators only.

Violence and self-destruction are not two problems that happen to the same households. On this evidence they are two expressions of the same collapse, in the same people, triggered by the same events.

11. Patterns across the data

Three findings appear only when these datasets are read against each other. None of them is visible inside a single agency’s reporting.

Concentration across three datasets

Formal volunteering fell from 30 per cent of Australians to 23 per cent between 2019 and 2025. Over roughly the same period, total hours volunteered rose from 490 million to 618 million.

Self-reported recent methamphetamine use fell from 2.0 per cent of Australians in 2013 to 1.0 per cent in 2022–23. Over the same decade, national consumption approximately doubled.

Around $10 billion of the roughly $13 billion lost on poker machines each year comes from people exceeding low-risk gambling limits.

The same shape appears in civic participation, in drug consumption and in gambling losses: a smaller group of Australians absorbing a larger share of both the work and the damage.

This is not a population becoming uniformly worse off. It is a population separating, with a diminishing middle in each distribution.

Convergence at ages fifty to sixty-five

Several measures in this memo converge on the same age range.

• Males aged 60 to 64 recorded the largest single-year rise in suicide, at 18 per cent.
• The median age at divorce is 47.3 for men, and divorce rates rose in every male age group from 40–44 upward while falling among people in their twenties.
• Separation and divorce is the single most commonly recorded factor in the suicides of men aged 45 to 54.
• People aged 55 to 64 have the highest rate of entry to the National Disability Insurance Scheme with a primary psychosocial disability.
• Disability Support Pension receipt among people aged 65 to 69 rose 148 per cent between September 2017 and March 2025, from 40,500 to 101,000.

This cohort is too young for aged care programs, too old for youth programs, past the age at which retraining is typically offered, and outside the age brackets most suicide prevention campaigns address.

Category shift in income support

Working-age income support receipt reached its lowest level in more than 45 years, at close to 12 per cent of Australians aged 15 to 64 in June 2023, and Disability Support Pension numbers in the working-age population declined.

Over the same period the National Disability Insurance Scheme grew from a scheme designed for approximately 410,000 participants to 760,000, with projections above 900,000 by 2030.

Access for the group this memo concerns moved the other way. Approval rates for people applying with a primary psychosocial disability fell by 62 per cent between 2020 and 2025. People with primary psychosocial disability are about 9 per cent of participants but around 3 per cent of those newly granted access.

Unemployment payments are not where the movement is. The movement is into permanent disability classification, or into refusal at the door of it — and 65,300 people with a primary psychosocial disability now receive $5.7 billion in supports at an average of $88,700 each.

None of these three findings is reported by any single agency, because each of them requires two datasets that no one is required to read together.

12. What is not counted

Every gap below is a decision, and every one of them is cheap to close.

• Gambling has no national code. It is captured only through free-text financial-stressor fields.
• Family violence is counted in three states. The 28 to 56 per cent estimate comes from coronial reviews in Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia. There is no national figure.
• There is no national standard for psychosocial data. Each state and territory has its own coronial legislation and processes. The "why" is recorded eight different ways.
• Emergency department data on suicidal behaviour is not collected nationally. Attempts — the strongest single predictor of death — are largely invisible.
• Priority populations are not identifiable. LGBTI Australians are named as a priority population and cannot be identified in the data. Culturally diverse status cannot be reliably derived.
• Loneliness is not measured comparably. A review across 113 countries could not include Australian data, except for adolescents, and the OECD holds no comparable Australian measure.
• The datasets are never linked. The same profile appears in the suicide, overdose, road and justice data, and no agency has linked them to establish whether these are the same people.
• The figures arrive up to 18 months late, and the first published number is always an undercount.

The same profile — men, disconnected, substance-involved, recently separated, disadvantaged — appears in every one of these datasets. Whether they are the same people is the most important question in the field, and nobody has asked it.

Voluntary assisted dying sits outside all of this. It is a separate legal regime with its own reporting, and deaths under it are not classified as suicide and are excluded from the deaths-of-despair measure. It belongs in this memo only for the reason that people confuse the two: it is not part of this problem and is not addressed by this policy.

13. International comparison

Two claims are commonly made about this and neither survives the data.

Australia is not an international outlier. Its 2019 rate of 10.4 per 100,000 placed it 18th of 36 OECD countries, similar to Canada, New Zealand and Sweden, with the United States and Austria higher. The OECD range runs from Korea at 27.5 down to Turkey at 2.7.

Nor is this uniquely Western. The highest rates in the Asia-Pacific are in Japan, Mongolia and Korea. Among the world's highest are the post-Soviet states. Buddhist-majority countries span nearly the entire range: Bhutan sits near 5 per 100,000 while Japan and Korea sit at the top.

What the international pattern does show is more useful than either claim. The countries at the top are those that have experienced social collapse, extreme social pressure, or rapid dislocation — whatever their region or religion. The common factor is not geography. It is disintegration.

Australia has not seen a national increase either. The combined deaths-of-despair rate has been flat at 23 to 25 per 100,000 for a decade, and the United States pattern of surging opioid mortality has not been repeated here. The argument in this memo is not that things are getting worse. It is that a rate this high has held steady for a decade while being treated as somebody else's problem.

14. Existing commitments

Three point four per cent of all Australian deaths. The first and second leading causes of death for working-age Australians. A rate that has not moved in a decade. A First Nations rate moving backwards against a Closing the Gap target. And a set of causes — isolation, family breakdown, substance use, disadvantage, lost purpose — that no single portfolio holds.

Suicide sits with Health. Drugs sit with Health and Home Affairs. Alcohol sits with Health and the states. Road deaths sit with Infrastructure. Family violence sits with Social Services and the states. Isolation sits nowhere.

What has been offered, on the public record:

The largest commitment in the table is $180 million. The Productivity Commission has found the existing Commonwealth-state agreement not fit for purpose. No portfolio holds responsibility for the combined figure in section 1.

15. Sovereign Australia’s response

Declare a national emergency.

Not a strategy, not a framework, not another agreement between governments. A declaration, with everything that follows from one: the resources of the Commonwealth directed at a single objective, one minister accountable for the number, published targets, and reporting to Parliament on a fixed cycle.

Australia mobilises for fire, for flood, for pandemic. It moves money in days, stands up agencies in weeks, and does not ask a person in danger which portfolio they fall under. That capacity has never been turned on this.

The object of it is the country. The men dying in the trades and on the farms, the women dying after violence nobody recorded, the children who are the second most likely to die this way, the First Australians whose rate is moving backwards against a target the nation set for itself, the families coming apart under costs they cannot meet, and the towns that lost the things that used to hold people together.

The response has four parts.

Rebuild community. The clubs, halls, sheds, sporting grounds and volunteer organisations funded as national infrastructure rather than as grants. Ten Green Zones in the first term, two per state, with mental health and community space in one building, walk-in and open daily. Healing Centres in every corridor town. The evidence says social integration protects, that the effect is strongest for men, and that Australia dismantled the things delivering it without replacing them.

Rebuild family. Housing and financial security treated as suicide prevention, because the data says they are. Country Care Communities combining permanent housing with health, employment and community support. Corridor housing at $150,000 to $250,000 on Crown land under rent-to-buy, and granny flats as of right.

Separation is the most commonly recorded circumstance in male suicide in middle age, and the moments the state itself creates — a domestic violence order served, legal documents arriving, a tenancy ending — become points of contact rather than points of abandonment.

Unite the nation. One standard of service and safety in every postcode. First Australians first and on their terms, because the rate is 33.9 per 100,000 and rising and the median age at death is 33 — this is not a subsection of the emergency, it is where the emergency is worst. Programs designed, delivered and controlled locally, funded at the scale of the actual gap, and reported in public every year.

Repurpose Australians. Work, service and a reason to be somewhere. Regional and remote workforce programs, national service placements, trades pathways, and the corridor and construction programme in this platform — matched to the men in the occupations and age bands where the deaths concentrate. A person with work that matters and people who expect them is inside something.

Underneath the four: one nation, one count. A national coronial standard so a death is recorded the same way in every state. Gambling and family violence coded. Emergency department presentations collected nationally. The suicide, overdose, road and justice datasets linked. All of it published live, not eighteen months late.

And the clinical floor held — ten free psychology sessions a year with no gap and no means test, two hundred new public psychiatry positions, treatment on demand for addiction, and overdose prevention and suicide prevention merged into one program. The measured target is the male suicide rate down 30 per cent in five years, published against the baseline.

A government exists to protect the people who constitute it. Every other policy in this platform assumes Australians are alive to benefit from it. The purpose of this declaration is not to manage a statistic down. It is to put a country back together — one where a person in trouble is inside something rather than outside everything.

16. Summary

About 6,500 Australians a year die from suicide, drug-induced causes and alcohol-induced causes combined. That is the deaths-of-despair figure: 3.4 per cent of all deaths, at a combined rate of 23 to 25 per 100,000 that has not changed since 2014. It is approximately eighteen deaths a day, and about five times the national road toll.

The suicide component, around 3,300, is a floor rather than a count. It rises for three years after publication, and the deaths added to it are drawn from accidental poisoning and undetermined intent — the codes used where a coroner could not establish intent.

Two further quantities sit outside the 6,500 and are not included in it. International research places driver suicides at up to 8 to 9 per cent of fatal road crashes, which would be in the order of 100 Australian deaths a year currently recorded as accidents. Intimate partner and family violence is estimated to contribute to 28 to 56 per cent of women's suicides, measured in three states and not nationally.

The affected population is not confined to one group.

• Men are 76.5 per cent of suicides. Technicians and trades workers are the most common occupation recorded among them.
• Men aged 85 and over have the highest rate of any group; men aged 40 to 44 the largest share of deaths.
• Suicide is the second leading cause of death for Australian children and 15.9 per cent of all child deaths.
• Unintentional overdose is the second leading cause of death for Australians aged 25 to 44.
• The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rate is 33.9 per 100,000 and rising against the Closing the Gap baseline, at a median age of death of 33.
• Remote and very remote Australia runs at roughly double the major-city rate; the most disadvantaged fifth of the population at 2.5 times the most advantaged.
• People who received homelessness support in their last year of life account for around one in seven accidental poisoning deaths, one in nineteen suicides and one in twenty-five land transport deaths.
• 14.7 per cent of suicides in the Queensland register involved a person who had perpetrated intimate partner violence.

The recorded circumstances are consistent across those groups: separation and family breakdown, financial and housing pressure, isolation, substance use, and the absence of anything that made the situation bearable. The average person who died had four factors recorded.

No portfolio holds this. Suicide sits with Health, drugs with Health and Home Affairs, alcohol with Health and the states, road deaths with Infrastructure, family violence with Social Services and the states. Isolation sits nowhere. The largest commitment offered by any party is $180 million.

Sovereign Australia's position is that a cause of death of this size, distributed across this many parts of Australian life, is a national emergency and is declared as one — with the resources of the Commonwealth directed at it, one minister accountable, and the measurement built so the country knows what the number actually is.

The declaration covers everyone it affects, which is close to everyone: families, towns, workplaces, First Australians, the housed and the unhoused. That is the basis on which it unites rather than divides.

17. Sources

1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2022–2023, Non-medical use of pain-relievers and opioids, and Alcohol, tobacco and other drugs in Australia: pharmaceutical drugs; Public Health Association of Australia, Pharmaceutical Drug Misuse (2024); and Johnson and others, Drug and Alcohol Review (2026) — 5.3 per cent of Australians aged 14 and over misusing a pharmaceutical drug in the previous 12 months, up from 4.8 per cent in 2016; 500,000 people or 2.2 per cent using pain-relievers and opioids non-medically and around 400,000 or 2.1 per cent using pharmaceutical stimulants, rising to 4.8 per cent among people aged 20 to 29; pharmaceuticals ranking fourth among illicit drugs by recent use behind cannabis, cocaine and hallucinogens; people in the most disadvantaged areas 1.6 times as likely to use pain-relievers non-medically and those in the most advantaged areas 2.7 times as likely to use pharmaceutical stimulants; 54 per cent of non-medical pain-reliever users reporting concurrent use of another drug, most commonly alcohol; multiple drugs involved in 72 per cent of benzodiazepine and 71 per cent of pharmaceutical opioid ambulance attendances in 2024; people aged 15 to 34 accounting for around half of hospitalisations for antidepressants, antipsychotics and non-opioid analgesics, with women aged 15 to 24 recording the highest rate for non-opioid analgesics at 115.6 per 100,000; and non-medical codeine use falling from 3.0 per cent in 2016 to 1.2 per cent in 2022–23 following its rescheduling to prescription-only in February 2018; section 8.
2. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Income support payments for the working age population (data to 28 March 2025); Parliamentary Library, Working-age income support recipients (2025); National Disability Insurance Agency quarterly reporting and the Mental Health Coordinating Council (2026); Australian Psychosocial Alliance, Access Denied (2025); and AIHW, Psychosocial disability support — working-age income support receipt at close to 12 per cent of people aged 15 to 64 in June 2023, the lowest level in more than 45 years, with Disability Support Pension numbers in the working-age population declining; Disability Support Pension receipt among people aged 65 to 69 rising 148 per cent from 40,500 to 101,000 between September 2017 and March 2025; 2.4 million people aged 16 to 64 receiving income support, 14 per cent of that age group, and 5.3 million people aged 16 and over, 24 per cent; the National Disability Insurance Scheme growing from a design capacity of approximately 410,000 participants to 760,000 with projections above 900,000 by 2030; approval rates for applicants with a primary psychosocial disability falling 62 per cent between 2020 and 2025; that group comprising about 9 per cent of participants but around 3 per cent of those newly granted access; and 65,300 participants with a primary psychosocial disability receiving $5.7 billion in supports at an average of $88,700 each, with the highest access rate among people aged 55 to 64; section 11.
3. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Intentional self-harm (suicide) deaths and Causes of Death, Australia, 2024 (released 14 November 2025, with revisions published May 2026) — 3,307 deaths in 2024, 2,529 male and 778 female; age-standardised rate 11.8 and crude rate 12.2 per 100,000; 16th leading cause of death; leading cause for ages 15–44 and leading cause of premature death with 107,327 years of potential life lost and 34.4 years lost per person; median age at death 46.0 against 82.0 for all deaths; 82.6 per cent of deaths under 65; male rate 18.3 against female 5.5; males 85 and over at 31.2 and males 40–44 at 10.5 per cent of deaths; females 25–29 at 9.8; 70 child deaths and 15.9 per cent of all child deaths; recorded risk factors in 79.7 per cent of deaths with an average of four, psychosocial factors in 66.7 per cent, mood disorders 34.8 per cent, ideation 30.5 per cent, spousal relationship problems 25 per cent; the revision process and the reassignment of deaths first coded as accidental poisoning, undetermined intent or ill-defined causes; sections 1, 2 and 4.
4. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Suicide and self-harm monitoring — international comparison placing Australia 18th of 36 OECD countries at 10.4 per 100,000 in 2019; the up-to-18-month national reporting lag; the 12-month lag on hospital admissions; emergency department data identified as a key gap; suicide registers by jurisdiction and the three that publish monthly; sections 1, 3 and 8.
5. Centre for Population, Mortality trends: deaths of despair (2024), and AIHW, Suicide, alcohol and other drug-related deaths — the Case and Deaton framework and its exclusion of euthanasia; deaths of despair at 3.4 per cent of all Australian deaths in 2021; the combined rate of 23–25 per 100,000 since 2014 with no clear trend; unintentional drug-induced death as the second leading cause of death for those aged 25–44; 65 per cent of drug-induced deaths unintentional and 91 per cent of alcohol-induced deaths from chronic conditions; the absence of a US-style opioid surge; sections 1, 2, 3 and 7.
6. Bharat C and others, Age, period and cohort trends of substance poisoning, alcohol-related disease and suicide deaths in Australia, 1980–2019 (Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2024) — combined rates stable 1980–1999, declining 2000–2006 and rising 2007–2019, driven by substance poisoning and suicide among males; section 2.
7. Darke S, "Deaths of despair": a term that needs to be retired (Addiction, 2025) — the critique that the three causes trend differently and that there is no evidence drinking patterns are driven primarily by despair; sections 2 and 11.
8. Smith K, Kebbell M and Howard R, Suicide and perpetrators of intimate partner violence: insights from the Queensland Suicide Register 2000–2017 (2026) — 629 people, 14.7 per cent of suicides, having perpetrated or been alleged to perpetrate intimate partner violence; 92.7 per cent male; Indigenous overrepresentation at 18.3 per cent; 61.4 per cent having communicated suicidal intent and 43.9 per cent having sought mental health care; substance misuse commonly present at autopsy; domestic violence orders, receipt of legal documents and separation as key antecedents; sections 1, 2, 4 and 10.
9. Coroners Court of Victoria, report on family violence among people who died by suicide 2009–2016 — 24.5 per cent (1,172 of 4,790) having experienced family violence and 65.1 per cent of the males classified as perpetrators only; section 2.
10. Australian Institute of Criminology, National Homicide Monitoring Program — offender suicide following 11 per cent of intimate partner homicides and a higher proportion where children were killed; section 2.
11. Published analysis of intimate partner violence as a contributor to women's suicide (May 2026), drawing on coronial reviews in Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia — an estimated 15 women a week dying by suicide, with intimate partner and family violence a contributing factor in 28 to 56 per cent, or four to eight a week, against one woman killed every eleven days by a current or former partner; sections 1, 2 and 8.
12. University of Melbourne and published research on road transport suicide in Australia (2025), and Complex and underreported? A study into the prevalence of suicide by motor vehicle in the state of Queensland — international estimates of driver suicides at up to 8 to 9 per cent of fatal road crashes with up to half unreported; deliberate self-harm while driving at 1.1 to 7.4 per cent of crashes; males at 78 to 91 per cent of road transport suicides; the Australian rate nearly doubling from 0.125 to 0.25 per 100,000 between 2001 and 2017; injury to another person in close to 30 per cent and death of another person in about 4 per cent of collisions involving large weight disparity; sections 1 and 2.
13. Rintoul A and others, Gambling-related suicide in Victoria, Australia: a population-based cross-sectional study (Lancet Regional Health – Western Pacific, 2023) — 184 direct and 17 affected-other gambling-related suicides among 4,788 deaths from 2009 to 2016, comprising 4.2 per cent; 83 per cent male; concentration among the most disadvantaged; the finding that this is an underestimate because gambling is not routinely investigated and is concealed; the Hong Kong comparison identifying 20 per cent; section 8.
14. Suicide Prevention Australia, Community Tracker (2025) — isolation and loneliness surpassing housing affordability as a suicide risk; 27 per cent citing loneliness or social isolation as a key cause of distress, up from 22 per cent; one in seven Australians experiencing suicidal behaviour in the past year and one in four among those aged 18 to 24; the sector rating social isolation the highest risk to suicide rates; section 5.
15. Alothman D and others, The association between living alone, loneliness and suicide mortality (Journal of Affective Disorders, 2024), and the UK Biobank nine-year cohort analysis of living alone, loneliness and lack of emotional support — an approximately five-fold increase in suicide mortality risk associated with loneliness and social isolation, stronger in younger people; living alone and living with non-partners associated with death by suicide among men; social isolation described as a potentially reversible risk factor; section 5.
16. Australian longitudinal analysis of predictors of male loneliness across life stages (2024) — social isolation, dissolution of a romantic partnership, long-term disability and male-breadwinner beliefs as predictors; social contact, partnership and neighbourhood satisfaction as protective; job security for younger men and volunteering for older men; section 5.
17. Ending Loneliness Together, Social Connection in Australia 2023, and AIHW, Australia's welfare 2023 — reported loneliness peaking at 18 to 24 and falling to 5 per cent among those over 75; the absence of Australian data comparable across 113 countries and the OECD's lack of comparable Australian measures; sections 5 and 8.
18. Scanlon Foundation Research Institute, Insights 10: The “glass half empty” country? (June 2026) and Mapping Social Cohesion 2025 — declines between 2021 and 2025 of 13 points in agreement that Australia is a land of economic opportunity where hard work brings a better life, 12 points in optimism about Australia’s future, 13 points in the expectation that one’s own life will improve and 11 points in sense of belonging, the last now at its lowest level since the survey commenced in 2007; and fewer than one in three Millennials and Gen Z reporting a great sense of belonging; and published research on suicidality finding that struggling to find meaning and purpose in life is associated with increased risk; section 8.
19. United States Food and Drug Administration antidepressant labelling; Spielmans G, Spence-Sing T and Parry P, Duty to warn (Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2020); and cohort evidence including a Swedish population study of adults aged 75 and over — the basis of the under-25 warning and the argument that it is well founded, set against the risk of untreated depression, the absence of completed suicides in the trials underlying the warning, and lower suicide rates among treated older adults; section 7.
20. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Suicide rates and Society at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2025 — the OECD range from Korea at 27.5 to Turkey at 2.7; the highest Asia-Pacific rates in Japan, Mongolia and Korea; the caution that cross-country comparability is affected by differences in how intent is ascertained and certified; section 3.
21. Productivity Commission review of the National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Agreement; National Suicide Prevention Office, National Suicide Prevention Strategy (20 February 2025); Liberal Party of Australia policy announcement on the National Suicide Prevention Research Fund; and Suicide Prevention Australia statement on the Australian Greens' National Suicide Prevention Act commitment (April 2025) — the finding that the current agreement is not fit for purpose; the Strategy and the Agreement extended to June 2027; the $15 million research commitment; the $180 million legislative commitment; section 9.
22. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, People receiving specialist homelessness services support in the last year of life (November 2024) and Homelessness and suicide — people receiving specialist homelessness support in their last year of life accounting for around one in seven accidental poisoning deaths, one in nineteen deaths by suicide and one in twenty-five land transport accident deaths; accidental poisoning and suicide as the most common causes of death in that group, together a quarter to a third of all deaths; a death rate 1.8 times the general population; Australian studies finding people experiencing homelessness die 22 to 33 years younger than those housed; and the identification of people experiencing or at risk of homelessness as a priority population under the National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Agreement; sections 1 and 6.
23. Brackertz N and others, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (2020) — the three risk factors linking housing instability and suicide: prolonged financial stress caused by high housing costs, insecurity from eviction or homelessness, and the long-term impact of adverse childhood events; and the association of unemployment, undiagnosed mental illness and legal problems with suicide risk among people experiencing homelessness; section 6.
24. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Marriages and Divorces, Australia, 2025 — 49,158 divorces granted, up 4.1 per cent on 2024, at a crude divorce rate of 2.2 per 1,000 against 2.1 in 2024 and 3.3 in 2005; age-specific divorce rates rising for all male age groups from 40–44 and older and all female age groups from 35–39 and older, while falling in the 25–29 and 30–34 groups; median age at divorce 47.3 for males and 44.4 for females; median duration from marriage to separation of 9.4 years; 118,804 marriages registered, 1.7 per cent fewer than 2024, with the crude marriage rate falling to 5.3 per 1,000; section 6.
25. Queensland Treasury, Australian Gambling Statistics (39th edition, 2022-23), and Australian Institute of Health and Welfare gambling data — $244.3 billion wagered and approximately $25 billion lost in 2022-23, the highest per-person gambling losses in the world; Productivity Commission estimates of 80,000 to 160,000 adults experiencing significant problems from gambling and 250,000 to 350,000 at moderate risk; the Australia Institute finding that at least $10 billion of about $13 billion lost on poker machines each year comes from people exceeding low-risk limits; the harms associated with gambling including financial hardship, relationship breakdown, domestic violence, lost productivity, crime, depression and suicide; section 2 and section 7.
26. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Recorded Crime — Offenders (released 18 March 2026), and Personal Safety, Australia, 2021-22 — 97,800 family and domestic violence offenders recorded by police in 2024-25, an 8 per cent increase on 2023-24 and the largest annual increase since national reporting began in 2019-20, at a rate of 403 offenders per 100,000 people; 579,300 women having experienced abuse by a cohabiting partner under a definition including emotional and economic abuse; family violence as the leading cause of homelessness for women and children; sections 2 and 9.
27. Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission, National Wastewater Drug Monitoring Program, Report 25 (2026), and Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Alcohol, tobacco and other drugs in Australia: amphetamines and other stimulants — estimated national consumption of methylamphetamine, cocaine, heroin and MDMA of 26.8 tonnes between August 2024 and August 2025, a 21 per cent increase on the previous year which had itself risen 34 per cent; a combined street value of approximately $11.5 billion in the prior period with methylamphetamine accounting for 78 per cent; methylamphetamine consumption of around 15,800 kilograms in 2024–25 against 8,000 for cocaine and 1,700 for MDMA; methylamphetamine as the second most consumed illicit drug in wastewater behind cannabis; consumption approximately doubling in a decade; and Australia ranking second among comparable countries after the United States; section 8.
28. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2022–23, and commentary on the divergence between survey and wastewater measures — self-reported recent methamphetamine or amphetamine use falling from 2.0 per cent of Australians aged 14 and over in 2013 to 1.3 per cent in 2019 and 1.0 per cent in 2022–23, approximately 200,000 people, with 1.6 million reporting lifetime use; recent use of 2.1 per cent in remote and very remote areas against 1.1 per cent in major cities; and the interpretation that fewer people are using more potent forms more intensively, alongside rising treatment demand and ambulance attendances; section 8.
29. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Alcohol, tobacco and other drugs in Australia: pharmaceutical drugs and Availability of prescription opioids, benzodiazepines and gabapentinoids in Australia (2025–26); AIHW analysis of OECD health care quality indicators; Therapeutic Goods Administration consultation material on Schedule 8 opioid use; Chrzanowska and others (NDARC 2025); and Australian Prescriber on real-time prescription monitoring — pharmaceutical opioid deaths exceeding heroin deaths by two to two and a half times, reversing the position of the 1990s; pharmaceuticals accounting for 55 per cent of opioid poisoning hospitalisations against 20 per cent for heroin; opioid prescribing in primary care of 21.5 defined daily doses per 1,000 people per day in 2022 against an OECD average of 15; close to 150 hospitalisations and around three deaths involving opioids each day; dependence in 8 to 12 per cent of chronic pain patients; benzodiazepines as the single most common drug type in drug-induced deaths with 654 deaths in 2024 at 2.4 per 100,000, down from 4.4 in 2018 and above 1.9 in 1997; 329,000 patients dispensed opioids in 2024–25 having also been dispensed benzodiazepines within the previous 30 days; dispensing highest among people aged 80 and over; non-medical use of pain relievers 1.6 times more common in the most disadvantaged areas; and the decline in dispensing following de-listings, prescribing restrictions and smaller pack sizes from June 2020; section 8.
30. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Psychosocial risk factors as they relate to coroner-referred deaths in Australia, and AIHW, Psychosocial risk factors and deaths by suicide — the coding of relationship problems, separation and divorce, bereavement, family history of suicide, unemployment, economic circumstances including foreclosure and bankruptcy, legal problems and release from prison; separation and divorce as the most common factor for males aged 45 to 54; spousal relationship problems at 36.1 per cent for males aged 25 to 44; substance use and alcohol as the most common factors in remote Australia and employment and housing problems in cities; the absence of a national standard for psychosocial data collection; sections 4 and 8.